The Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution Essay

The Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution has ten amendments in the first part. The 2nd amendment in the Bill of Rights is The Right to Keep and Bear Arms. The 2nd amendment The Right to Keep and Bear Arms states that â€Å"A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a Free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed† (USConstitution). The 2nd second amendment allows any United States citizen to own any type of arm. It allows you to be armed whenever and wherever you want. The 2nd amendment has no regulations on what type of arms you can own, you can own an arm ranging from a small handgun to a powerful machine gun. Gun Control affects thousands of people in todays society; people†¦show more content†¦The amendment reads: A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. The basic issue for the justices was whethe r the amendment protects an individuals right to own guns no matter what, or whether that right is somehow tied to service in a state militia. The capitals gun law was among the nation’s strictest. The law, adopted by Washingtons city council in 1976, bars residents from owning handguns unless they had one before the law took effect. Shotguns and rifles may be kept in homes, if they are registered, kept unloaded and either disassembled or equipped with trigger locks† (Background on Gun Control). There are two major sides of gun control. One side is that the people that support the right to bear arms, and the people that don’t support guns and want them abolished. The side that supports gun control believes that you should be able to own any kind of arms. The position that they take is that if you outlaw guns it will only affect good people and criminals will always find a way to get a weapon. They believe that you are not taking the guns out of bad people’ s hands because bad people will always be able to attain a gun illegally. Banning guns will create a black market where guns will be made available to criminals. Criminals will always be able to put their hands on armsShow MoreRelatedThe Bill Of Rights Of The United States Constitution914 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is a bill of rights? What is an amendment? How are the different? A bill of rights is a formality such as the Declaration of Independence and it is the outline of what the citizens feel their born rights are as people of a union. An amendment is the changing or altering of a legal or civil document. Specifically amendments in the United States Constitution include the changing or detailing of what the people need. These two phrases differ in what their purposes are. The bill of rights was setRead MoreThe Bill Of Rights Of The United States Constitution Essay1359 Words   |  6 PagesThe Bill of Rights contains the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. These first ten amendments were ratified on December 15, 1791. The Bill of Rights define and interpret constitutional rights and protections that are guaranteed under the US Constitution. The following text is a transcription of the first ten amendments to the Constitution in their original form. â€Å"Amendment I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exerciseRead MoreThe Bill Of Rights Of The United States Constitution1501 Words   |  7 Pages Introduction. The Bill of Rights is a historical documents that has the first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution. The purpose of the Bill of Rights is for greater constitutional protection for our own individual liberties. It has a list of specific prohibitions on government power. There were only 12 amendments originally for the state legislatures and only picked 10 for all the states and those are known as the Bill of Rights, but there are 27 amendments in total. AmendmentsRead MoreThe Bill Of Rights Of The United States Constitution Essay1866 Words   |  8 PagesThe bill of rights is the ten amendments to the United States Constitution, approved on December 15, 1791, and written by James Madison as a response to calls from several States for greater constitutional protection for Individual freedoms, such as freedom of Speech. It creates many legal principles that have had a crucial effect on law and society. The bill of right was added to the Constitution of the United States to assurance the protection of the people from the government. It was served toRead MoreGeneral George Washington And His Continental Army Had1643 Words   |  7 Pagesdefeated the English Army. In 1776, the founding fathers of the United States of America signed the Declaration of Independence, according to ushistory.org 60 delegates signed the document that granted the country we know today as the United States free from British rule.Some of the men that inked their name into American history were Thomas Jefferson. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Hancock. From that point on the United States was an independent nation. Being an independent nation means theRead MoreUnited States Of America Constitution845 Words   |  4 PagesUnited States of America Constitution The United States of America is by far the most successful Republic governed country in the world and has managed to survive for over 223 years. The success can be contributed to the foundation that the farmers created, which is the United States Constitution. The framers knew that with time the needs of the people would evolve due to changes in society. That being said, they knew that the regulations in the Constitution would need to be adjusted or expandedRead MoreThe Bill Of Rights By James Madison And Influenced By George Mason1078 Words   |  5 Pageswhich the bill of rights was written by James Madison and influenced by George Mason was the United State of America in the late seventeen hundreds. The bill of rights has many differences from an amendment. The constitution is the bases of the bill of rights. The federalist and the anti federalist had different views in which the bill of rights came into play. Many people in the United States did not want a government that reflec ted the England government. One will look at what is the bill of rightsRead MoreGovernmental Foundation in the Declaration of Independence Essay867 Words   |  4 Pages On July 4, 1776, the United States of Americas Declaration of Independence was adopted by the Second Continental Congress, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. This document, primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, announced that the thirteen colonies were declaring their independence and, in doing so, were independent states apart from the British Empire. The Declaration of Independence is comprised mainly of colonial grievances and assertions of human rights. The Declaration of Independence formed aRead MoreUnited States Vs. Virginia Constitution. In A Quick Observation,1115 Words   |  5 PagesUnited States VS. Virginia Constitution In a quick observation, it may be easy to observe that the Constitution of Virginia is much larger in length and detail than the United States Constitution. There are many differences between these two constitutions besides the authors or contributors being that James Madison contributed to both, however, he was not the complete author of the Constitution of Virginia (Constitutions of Virginia). Both Constitutions have the same idea in which it holds threeRead MoreThe United States Bill Of Rights882 Words   |  4 PagesThe United States Bill of Rights was created in September 25, 1789 and ratified December 15, 1791. The Bill of Rights are the first ten amendments to the Constitution that were established to defend our rights as individuals and as American citizens. The Bill of Rights describes the rights of its people. The first four articles of the amendments deal specifically with the balance of power between the federal government and state government. There were some people who opposed to the Constitution because

The Case Of Brown V. Board Of Education - 982 Words

Education is a valuable service in society that strengthen a workforce, a nation and bring forth awareness. Why should this be limited based on race or because of economic reasons, the quality should represent where the schools are located, if they are public? The Public School system belongs to society and those who contribute to what supports the education system. In choosing Brown v. Board of Education, a case which continues to have a great impact to this day, taking into consideration what was occurring at the time is how this case can be fathom. Today, equality is flawed, but far from the injustices of the 50s. However, steps such as the case of Brown v. Board of Education, others alike, and they were more than a court cases; the revolution needed for change. â€Å"On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court issued its landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ruling, which declared that racially segregated public schools were inherently unequal† (The Learning Network, 2012) . Without a doubt, in current times the public school’s roster reflects the demographic makeup of its neighborhoods; racial and culturally, and these are the results of economics, more than a racial circumstance. That said, in continuing to change there will be more court cases on isolated discrimination and beyond the school system to allow changes needed. Currently, being able to have schools with diversity opens the minds of our youth to explore the world’s culture, it provides early on people to steerShow MoreRelatedThe Case Brown V Board Of Education Essay1344 Words   |  6 PagesThe court case came about when Plessy [a man of mixed race, one eighth black to be precise)], sat in a white’s only railway car in New Orleans. He was asked to vacate the car, but when he refused he was arrested and awaited trial. After getting a lawyer, he appealed and was able to have his case heard by the Supreme Court. This law allowed further segregation legislation to pass, an d justified racial segregation in many institutions (such as school) establishing a Jim Crow system (Horton and MoresiRead MoreThe Case Of Brown V. Board Of Education Essay793 Words   |  4 PagesDiscrimination in schools became apparent when the court case of Brown v. the Board of Education (1955) began to challenge the school systems. It brought up the unfair advantages minority children were facing in the separate but equal school systems. The ruling of this case pointed out the obstruction of parent s rights presented in the Fourteenth Amendment, and ultimately led to the ruling of all schools becoming integrated. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 349 U.S. 294 (1955) FourteenthRead MoreThe Case Of Brown V. Board Of Education1813 Words   |  8 Pagesforbidding defense contractors from using racially discriminatory hiring practices (Week) and on May 17, 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court overturned the provisions of Plessy v. Ferguson, which allowed for â€Å"separate but equal† public facilities, including public schools. The unanimous decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas declared that â€Å"separate educational facilities are inherently unequal† thus ending federal tolerance of racial segregation and igniting the beginning ofRead MoreAnalysis of the Brown v Board of Education Case2525 Words   |  11 Pages It is imperative to note that the case of Brown v Board of Education is based on a chronological history of the fight towards realization of human rights in the United States. This essay shall begin by discussing the history chronologically and accessing it whilst the essay goes along. It is clear th at even though the United States constitution guaranteed equal rights to all men, the issue of slavery prevailed under violation of other human rights. It was only after the Civil War that slave tradeRead MoreThe Case Of Brown V. Board Of Education Of Topeka1694 Words   |  7 Pages In 1954, The United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision with its ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The ruling was a monumental one for multiple reasons. Firstly, it was a major step in the Civil Rights Movement as it ended the legal use of â€Å"separate but equal† facilities, under the ruling that this violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. It gave African-Americans access to better schools, and also gave them a greater sense of dignity as theyRead MoreThe Case Of Oliver Brown V. The Board Of Education Of Topeka1991 Words   |  8 PagesThe question that this historical investigation and sources will be seeking to answer is: To what extent did the case of Oliver Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas further the progress of the civil rights movement in search of African-American equality? The first source being evaluated is â€Å"The Brown Decision: Its Long Anticipation and Lasting Influence.† This academic journal article originates from the Journal of Southern History, and is written by Linda Reed, an associate professorRead MoreThe Brown v. Board of Education Court Case Essay993 Words   |  4 PagesThe Brown v. Board of Education Court Case served as a highlighted issue in black history. Brown v. Board help different races comes together in public schools. This case became very big 1950s lots of attention was drawn to the case at that time. News reporter and critics had different views and opinions about this case. This case in 1954 causes lots of issues and views towards the black race. The quote â€Å"separate but equal† is vital due to â€Å"Plessy v. Ferguson† and the famous lawyer Thurgood MarshallRead MoreThe Plessy v. Ferguson and the Brown v. The Board of Education Cases592 Words   |  2 Pagesof Creole professionals in New Orleans formed the Citizens’ Committee to Test the Constitutionality of the Separate Car Law. They hired Albion Tourgà ©e, a Reconstruction-era judge and social reformer, as their legal counsel. As plaintiff in the test case the committee chose a person of mixed race in order to support its contention that the law could not be consistently applied, because it failed to define the white and â€Å"colored† races. In 1892, Homer Plessy, a 30 year old male shoemaker who was anRead MoreThe Court Case that Changed the World: Brown v. Board of Education1078 Words   |  5 PagesBrown v. Board of Education is a story of triumph over a society where separating races simply based on appearances was the law. It is a story of two little girls who has to walk through a railroad switchyard in Topeka, Kansas in 1950 just to attend school. With lunch bags and backpacks in hand, they make their way to the black bus stop which is a distance of the tracks. They have to walk this distance, pass the buses filled with white children because they are unable to attend the nearby whiteRead MoreThe Controversial Supreme Court Case Of Brown V. Board Of Education Essay2371 Words   |  10 Pagescontroversial Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education and the effect is had on the nation and even the world. Many people ignore the fact school segregation has not been fixed. The Supreme Court case of Brown v. Bo ard of Education is just something people learn in their social studies class. Most think this case was the end of the story and schools were desegregated and everything was happily ever after, but this is sadly not the reality. The reality is Brown has failed us. The effects can

Behavior Essay free essay sample

Behavior Essay I am writing this essay for Mrs. Metty because I acted inappropriately in her class today. Mrs. Metty has discussed my misbehavior with me and I understand why I have received this disciplinary assignment. I have also been informed that this essay would be the punishment for any unacceptable behavior in Mrs. Metty’s class. The reason Mrs. Metty does not tolerate misbehavior is because she cares about me and my success in high school. It is important to her that I do well in my classes and earn good grades. It is also important to her that I learn study skills, independent work habits, and self-discipline. Self-discipline is one of the most important things I can learn in high school; with that skill I can accomplish many things. I need to learn self-discipline so I can act appropriately in class and progress further toward my goals. Acting silly, goofing off, wasting valuable class time, and acting immature are all signs of disrespectful behavior – not only toward Mrs. We will write a custom essay sample on Behavior Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Metty, but also toward my classmates who are trying to get the most out of their education. Along with self-discipline, respect for others is an extremely important thing to learn. I need to realize that there is a time and place for everything. There are times for fun and times for serious work. Mrs. Metty’s class is a time for working hard to make good grades and learn study skills. There will be time for fun later – after school and on the weekends – but in class I need to focus on my schoolwork. It may not seem important to me now, but it will be at some point, and Mrs. Metty knows this even if I don’t yet. Acting the correct way in class will show respect to my teacher and my classmates. It will also benefit me on many levels. I won’t have to write this essay again, I’ll learn more in class, I’ll get more homework and studying done, and my grades will improve. However, if I choose to break the rules again, I will have to face the consequences again. That is how life works. If I do the right things, I get good consequences. If I do the wrong things, I get bad consequences. I need to remember that I am responsible for my choices. I decide what I will or will not do. Mrs. Metty hopes that I will learn to make good decisions, but she will continue to provide me with behavior modification exercises like this one if I continue to make bad decisions about my behavior. Even when I get discouraged I should still remember that I am lucky to live in the country, where a free public education is provided to all, I am especially lucky to attend Pace High School where teachers care enough about me to correct my behavior.

The Euthyphro Dialogue free essay sample

In this paper I will describe and analyze the Euthyphro dialogue where Plato offered an argument against the divine command Meta- ethical view. In this dialogue, Socrates argued against Euthyphro definition of actions being pious and holy. In Plato’s Euthyphro, Socrates first heard that Euthyphro is trying to prosecute his father for murder. Euthyphro’s thinks that his action was pious, and his definition of piety is doing what the God(s) approve of. Socrates questioned Euthyphro’s definition of action being pious and quickly asks: â€Å"is the holy loved by the gods because it is holy? Or is it holy because it is loved? Socrates presents this premise to argue against Euthyphro definition of piety as he suggests this question. What Socrates has asked is whether something is lovable because the God (s) love it, or the God(s) love it for the reason that something is loveable. He points out this question because it introduces the Euthyphro dilemma. We will write a custom essay sample on The Euthyphro Dialogue or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This dilemma obstructs Socrates to draw the conclusion of what pious and holiness is. Socrates suggests that there are two horns in the Euthyphro dilemma. The first horn that he illustrates is the question of whether moral is loved by the God(s) because it is moral. Socrates points out that if an action is holy then the God (s) will love it. And no matter how the God(s) feels about it, or whether if the God(s) will approve or disprove it, and that action will still be holy. For instance, we all know that rape is impious. No matter how the God (s) think, he cannot change the fact that rape is impious. What this horn implies is that morality is independent of the God(s)’s opinion, and therefore the God(s)’s opinion is bounded by the morality. Following the first horn in the Euthyphro dilemma, Socrates introduces the second horn in the dilemma. As he again asks: â€Å"is the holy loved by the gods because it is holy? Or is it holy because it is loved? † Socrates addresses that the second horn is that the God(s)’s opinion or approval of a certain action makes that particular action pious. In other words, morality is bounded by the God(s)’s opinion. This second horn is also known as the Divine Command Theory. In this theory it claims that the God(s) is goodness. In order for us to judge whether an action is moral or immoral is solely based on whether the God(s) allows us to do it, or prohibits us from doing it. In contrast, the second horn is rather the opposite of the first horn. The first horn states that morality is independent of the God(s)’s opinion, and the God(s)’s opinion is bounded by the morality. Whereas, the second horn states that morality is depending and is bounded by the God(s)’s opinion or approval. The use of the Euthyphro Dilemma by Socrates to argue against Euthyphro’s definition of pious is relatively successful. Here are the analyses of how successful the two horns are in the Dilemma. Suppose the first horn: â€Å"is the pious loved by the god(s) because it is pious† is true, then we can conclude that the God(s) bases his decision what to love on what is already pious. As a result, piety must have existed before any of the God(s)’s love. Otherwise, the God(s) will not love anything since there isn’t any piety. If it is true that piety exists before any love, then it means that piety is independent of the God(s)’s love. And therefore piety is not affected or determined by the God(s). In other words, no matter whether the God(s) loves an action or not, piety still exists on the action. On the other hand, let us assume that the second horn that Socrates presented: â€Å"Is it holy because it is loved? † is true. Then in this point of view, nothing is good until the God(s) loves it. Suppose then, that the second horn: â€Å"It is holy because it is loved† is correct, then on this view, nothing is pious until the God(s) loves it. However, if this is true, then it raises three problems. The first problem is known as the problem of arbitrariness. It comes to this first problem when the God(s) chooses which action to love and to hate. And what the God(s) loves or approves of is based on some property of an action. In other words, the property of the action is what really makes the action pious, not the God(s)’s love or approval. As a result, in order for the God(s) to really make an action pious, the God(s) will have to love and approves the action(s) arbitrarily, with no reason at all. This problem is made worse when if it is true that the omnipotent God can love and approve of anything arbitrarily. For example, if the God(s) approves and loves assassinations or murders, then the action of assassinating and murder will automatically become pious. This doesn’t seem right though that even if the God(s) loves murders and killings and theses actions will still be pious. And therefore, this problem proves the Devine command theory to be false. The problem of caprice is the second problem that exists in the second horn from the dilemma. This problem suggests that the God(s)’s approval and his love for an action might be pious for today, but it might be impious tomorrow. In addition, Socrates explains that if there are many gods, how can things be determined if they are pious or not. â€Å"It would be at all surprising if you were thereby doing something agreeable to Zenus but odious to Coronus and Uranus. This second problem creates a grey area of whether an action is pious or not. Due to the fact that this grey-area exists, it implies that the Devine Command Theory can be false. The third problem that exists in the dilemma is the problem of triviality. We all know that â€Å"God is good† and â€Å"Whatever God does is good†. However, it is no triviality that the God(s) should act in accordance with these values. There is a possi bility that one day at which the God(s) fails to act â€Å"good†, and which it also means that there is a possibility that the Divine Command Theory can become false. By now, we have described and analyzed the two horns in the dilemma that Socrates presents in his conversation with Euthyphro. The use of the dilemma is successful at arguing against Euthyphro’s definition of piety. What Euthyphro defines piety is that doing what the God(s) approve of – The Devine Command Theory. As Socrates suggests the problems within horns from the dilemma, these problems again and again prove that the Devine Command Theory isn’t always right. In other words, what Euthyphro says about piety is doing what the God(s) approves of isn’t going to be true all the time.

E-commerce- Payment Methods On the Net essays

E-commerce- Payment Methods On the Net essays Almost 360million people worldwide use the internet regularly and one in four of these have made online purchases.Most of these transactions have been made using credit cards because they have had no other option.In this report I will attempt to identify and explain a series of e-payment methods which I could employ in the day to day running of my business.While doing this I will attempt to show the benefits they will bring to my businees and prospective customers alike while briefly including the key features of the payment systems I have identified. These cards store information on a chip contained within the card itself.These chips can store an incredibly diverse amount of information and the ability to store digital signatures and financial information is essential.The cards largely operate on the same principal as top-up phone cards where the chip is topped-up with a monetary amount which is then used for cash purchases.When this cash is spent,the chip is recharged with more money.The level of security and convenience with these cards is high as is the level of privacy and they are widely believed to be a genuine competitor of more widely used credit cards such as VISA and Mastercard.It is my belief that this method of payment would benefit both myself and my consumers for the following reasons: My business will enjoy lower costs due to high credit card network fees being reduced. The consumer also benefits from hidden costs being eliminated. A whole new market should open up to me due to my customers not requiring a credit card to make a purchase,especially in the lower priced goods market where credit card charges make it unprofitable for my business or more expensive for my customers. 2:Saferpay-Credit Card Payment Facilities Saferpay is an internet payment solution which would offer my business as well as consumer card holders a guarantee of secur ...

12 Trucking Tips to Drive Safer This Winter

12 Trucking Tips to Drive Safer This Winter I don’t know about where you are, but here in New York, autumn has finally caught up to us. All the trees are racing to turn to yellow and red, and if this year’s anything like the last two, we’ve got some frigid temperature and blustery snowstorms to look forward to. Many drivers who find themselves in winter conditions forget some basics- they don’t change their driving skills or brush up on maneuvering and skid control. Make sure you’re up-to-date on the preventative safety skills that could save your life or someone else’s.If you’re still on the road this time of year, here are some important safety suggestions from the experts at Smart-Trucking.com.1. Slow DownThe speed limit may tell you the legal max, but it can’t read road conditions or understand delays in stop time the way you can. Don’t let your eagerness to finish a trip make you hurry when it’s not safe.2. Follow SafelyWhen possible, leave 1/4 mile bet ween you and the vehicle in front of you, and try to give space to the vehicles next to you, too. Remember that if you’re driving with a group, the mistake the front truck makes can impact everyone else.3. Get Out of the PackFor that reason alone, try not to drive in the packs traffic tends to organize itself into- your goal should be attaining the maximum distance around your vehicle.4. Don’t Fixate on Tail LightsIt can be tempting to focus on the lights of the car in front of you when visibility or weather conditions get overwhelming, but if you can see them you’re probably too close!5. Don’t Stop on the ShoulderOther cars and trucks in low visibility may not be able to figure out your truck has pulled over or even that it’s stopped, and they could slam into your rear axle before they knew what was happening. Try to get to a truck stop or weigh station- anywhere you can pull fully off the road.6. Don’t Try to Be a HeroEven if you pride you rself on always being on schedule or arriving before your deadlines, remember that pushing yourself when the weather is inclement is not worth risking your safety. Balance the pressure you feel coming from dispatches or service rules with concern for your life and others on the road.7. Don’t Jake BrakeBe especially aware of the risks of employing your jake brake and over-using your footbrake on icy and snowy roads. You may find yourself sliding and spinning out of control, especially when the trailer is empty.8. Pay Extra Attention to your Circle CheckMake sure all your systems are fully functional- you don’t want the defroster, the heater, the wipers, or the lights (particularly the brake and tail lights) to go down on you in the middle of a scary stretch of road. Make sure everything that has a level is full to capacity. If possible, have extras stored away in case you need to refill mid-drive.9. Stay Fueled UpFull fuel tanks mean extra weight on your drive tires, wh ich helps with traction and stability. Make sure your tires have enough pressure for winter driving, as well.10. Keep Your Lights CleanWhenever you can stop, make sure to clear off your head and tail lights, particularly if you’re equipped with LED lights. Make sure you’re visible, so other drivers can adjust if they need.11. Pack an Emergency KitYour kit should have necessities for servicing your truck, but also the basics to help you hunker down if necessary: a change of warm clothes, a bottle of water, hand-warmers, first aid kit, batteries, a flashlight, and flares. Also,  consider investing in portable chargers for any electronics you carry regularly.12. Get off the RoadWhen in doubt, use your common sense and best judgment about when it’s time to get off the road. It may make for a great war story to power through a terrible blizzard and make your delivery dates, but I guarantee people would rather remember the time you arrived a day late, alive and well , than the horrific accident that kept you from arriving at all. Know when to pull off the road. Remember that you’ll be the one ultimately held accountable for whether you drove or parked to wait it out.

Benefits and technical challenges for using self compacting concrete Essay

Benefits and technical challenges for using self compacting concrete - Essay Example By regulating the mix proportioning, the concrete is so formed such that it doesn’t require compaction. There is no particular code available for SCC so far even though it has started to catch wide application in modern days and again there is no definite mix proportioning procedure established (Zhu et al., 2001). In order to learn comprehensively about the feasibility of using the concepts of SCC with the available materials around, this research essay is basically grounded on the factual findings on the benefits and the critical challenges cropping up as a result of using the modern developed self-compacting concrete. According to Loughran (2007) the basis at which SCC is highly gaining recognition, wide acceptability and increased adoption in terms of usage in modern constructions are inevitable and are essential as further illustrated in this essay. On highlights, it is of note that when large quantity of substantial reinforcement is to be positioned on a reinforced concrete (RC) member, it is never easy to certify that the formwork gets wholly filled with concrete; that is, fully compacted without honeycombs or voids. Compaction by mechanical vibrators or by manual is very difficult in this situation. The method used of compaction, vibration, causes additional cost and delays in the projects. For underwater concreting it is always required that you use fresh concrete, which could be placed without the necessity of compaction; in such conditions vibration had been merely impossible. This challenge can now be resolved with self-compacting concrete (Persson, 2003: 374-379). The SCC flows easily a round the reinforcement and into every corner of the formwork. The SCC is very fluid and passes around obstructions to fill all the corners and nooks without the risk of either mortar or any other ingredients of concrete detaching out, and simultaneously ensuring that there are no

Shamanism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Shamanism - Essay Example These tales take on a legendary, epic nature. In communities that continue the shamanic traditions, narratives with shamanic protagonists serve to establish a communal code of conduct, providing a narrative model of idealized and stigmatized shamanic behaviors. They constitute a native discourse on the nature, efficacy, and dangers of shamanic practices. A practitioner's power can be described and also enhanced by such tales. Examples of such narratives can be found in Knud Ramussen's (1921) Eskimo Folk Tales. One typical story is that of Kuniseq who sets out on a spirit journey to the land of the dead with a spirit helper. The landscape is described as a slippery reef, changing into a field of heather, providing visual imagery for a better understanding of the nature of the spirit world. Kuniseq meets some children and his mother who tries to kiss him and offers him berries which he refuses, as one should never eat in the land of the dead if one intends to remain with the living. In general, the tale provides a comforting representation of the land of the dead and the supporting role of the spirit helper. When Kuniseq dies soon after this journey, it is to be happily reunited with his deceased kin. The tale illustrates the shaman's familiarity with the spirit world, emphasizing his competence and also provides information on the other world of interest to listeners. Not only does the tale provide valuable cosmological information, it also underscores the efficacy of the angakok to fulfill the task of supplyinf information on the cosmos that would otherwise be unavailable to ordinary members of the community and presents the shaman as a true Inuit hero. Q2. In the cultural encounters between shamanic traditions and other religions or systems the former have often been vilified and condemned. Shamans have been tortured and persecuted as was reported of U.S. Navy Commander Henry Glass in his dealings with the Tlingit people in the 1890s. But even more subtle methods of discrediting and suppressing shamanic worldviews exert pressure on practitioners over time. Intercultural and interfaith confrontations can lead to the marginalization of the shaman figure, which did not necessarily enjoy total acceptance in the first place, and was sometimes regarded as a source of misfortune and suspicion even in the shaman's own cultural context. As the community evolves toward more complex systems of organization and the religious tradition becomes more firmly institutionalized with a fixed doctrine, the marginalization of the shaman can increase. Religions undergo transformation reflecting the changes in norms and circumstances of their ambient soc ieties. Combined with external pressure and systematic suppression, particularly from missionizing religious traditions with strong doctrinal components and the superiority of the aggressors, the cultural context of the shamanic community can change to such an extent that a shift occurs and the religious beliefs predominant in the community change. There may or may not be vestiges of the old traditions remaining in form of certain rephrased rituals, or mystical figures. The shaman is gradually superseded by or transformed into the priests elected and trained by established religious institutions. An internal decline in the belief in the importance of shamanic rituals can be the result of external influences and the encroachment of alternative worldviews. State- sponsored efforts as in Soviet Russia, or

Introduction to Linguistics Essay Example for Free

Introduction to Linguistics Essay What is meant by the field of linguistics? This introductory chapter concerns some dimensions of linguistics, which give us a general idea of what linguistics is, including the history of linguistic, grammar, and other disciplines of linguistics study. What does grammar consist of and what are the relationship between one and another? How many languages do human beings have the capacity to acquire? What other studies are made in recent centuries? Each of these aspects are clearly described, and other chapters will go into further details. While in this chapter we will provide some less detailed information on the various aspects of linguistics mentioned so far. 1. 1 Defining Linguistics There is nothing that can be said by mathematical symbols and relations which cannot also be said by words. The converse, however, is false. Much that can be and is said by words cannot successfully be put into equations, because it is nonsense. C. Truesdell Linguistics is a study to describe and explain the human faculty of language. There is no doubt that linguistics has changed through human development. 1. 1. 1 History of linguistics See more: how to write an introduction The history of linguistics can be divided into three periods: antiquity, middle ages and modern linguistics. 1. 1. 1. 1 Antiquity Dating back to earlier period of linguistics, linguistics is often associated with a need to disambiguate discourse, especially for ritual texts or in arguments. Ancient Indians made a big contribution to linguistics development. Similarly, ancient Chinese played a key role in improving linguistics development. Around the same time as the Indian developed, ancient Greek philosophers were also debating the nature and origins of language. During this period, syntax and the use of particles developed fast. In addition, scholars proposed that word meanings are derived from sentential usage. 1. 1. 1. 2 Middle Ages In Middle East, in terms of expanding Islam in 8th century, a large number of people learn Arabic. Because of this, the earliest grammar came to being gradually. At the same time, Sibawayh, a famous scholar, wrote a book to distinguish phonetics from phonology. In the 13th century, Europeans introduced the notion of universal grammar. 1. 1. 1. 3 Modern Linguistics Modern linguistics beginning can date back to the late 18th century. With time passing by, the study of linguistics contains increasing contents. Meanwhile, it is used in other fields, computer, e. g. , has come to be called computational linguistics. The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrower sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories of language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics. However, linguistics is only a part of a much larger academic discipline, semiotics. It is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one single language of any one society, just like Chinese or French, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operated as systems of communication in their societies or communities. 1. 1. 2 An Interesting Comparison. Linguistics is a broad field to study, therefore, a linguist sometimes is only able to deal with one aspect of language at a time, and thus various branches arise: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology and so on. Suppose that the study of linguistics can be considered to be a computer, so linguistics is equal to the CPU, which supports all the other parts. Moreover, sound card would stand for phonetics and phonology, and then morphology and semantics are like the memory of the computer. Whats more, syntax plays as an important role to translate single words to a whole sentence which is full of meaning, just like a graphics card, which uses picture to make sense of the idea of memory stick. Finally, everything is ready, it s time to use computer and the same goes for language acquisition. Very interestingly, the properties of computer are amazingly similar to human language. from www. iflytek. com/english/Research-Introduction%20to%20TTS. htm Above all, linguistics is concerned with the study of verbal language particularly speech and written language. Whats more, language is a system and there is a set of options of which one must be chosen depending on the purpose and context. (Marie E. John P. , 1991, p. 64). 1. 2 The broad study of language Language is a highly complex system of communication, so it sometimes will be called a ‘system of systems’. It is used to construct, exchange, express, and record information and ideas. It performs these functions effectively because it is based upon systems that are understood by those using the language. In this chapter, four topics will be concerned. They are phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. In this section, some overall definitions and interactions among the four parts will be talked about. 1. 2. 1 Phonology In order to assist learners at the early stages of literacy, it is very important to understand the relationship between sounds and letters. The sounds of speech are studied in phonetics and phonology. (Marie E. John P, 1991) 1. 2. 1. 1 Definitions of phonology and phonetics Phonology is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occurs in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. In other words, we study the abstract side of the sounds of language, a related but different subject that we call phonology (Peter, 2000). In short, it is about patterns and roots. On the other hand, it is more strict linguistics. Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. In common, speech sound is used everywhere, and it can be divided into three parts: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics. 1. 2. 1. 2 The difference between phonology and phonetics It seems that phonology and phonetics are similar. That is why both of them make learners confused. In fact, they have great difference. Phonology pays attention to how speech sounds of a language pattern are put together according to regular rules. On the contrary, phonetics focuses mainly on description of how speech sounds are made. For instance, if someone says â€Å"we should get our two lips close together and then push them open with a strong air†, that means he or she is relevant to phonetics field. Another example is â€Å"no words should begin with the ‘ng’/N/ sound, the sound only occurs at the end of words†, and this concerns phonology area. Plenty of terms are used to describe different patterns of letters and sounds. Some of the common used terms are blend, digraph, schwa, syllable and phonics, which are widely and frequently applied. 1. 2. 2 Morphology Morphology has been regarded as a necessarily synchronic discipline. That means the rules focusing on the study of word structure instead of the development of words (Katamba, 1993, p.3). It is the basic element used in a language, and the concept of morphemes is one of the main aspects in the study of morphology (Yule, 2006, p. 66). Basically, it is the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words. In morphology, morphemes are the minimal units that have semantic meaning. It is the linguistic term for the most elemental units of grammatical form (Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams, 2006, p. 77). 1. 2. 2. 1 The classification of morphemes Morphemes are composed of free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes are the morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, while bound morphemes are those that can not normally stand alone, but that can be attached to affixes (Yule, 2000, p. 75). Free morphemes contain lexical and functional morphemes. The first category, free morphemes, is the set of ordinary nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs which carry the content of the conveyed messages (Yule, 2000, p. 76), and most English words refer to this category. The functional morphemes consist largely of the functional words, including conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (Yule, 2000). Bound morphemes can also be divided into two categories. They are derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes are those which make new words in the language and make words of a different grammatical category from the stem (Yule, 2000, p. 76), which means that it can change the meaning or the word class, whereas the inflectional morphemes are used to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word (Yule, 2000, p. 77). 1. 2. 2. 2 The interaction with other aspects Morphology has interactions with phonology. The selection of the form that manifests given morpheme may be affected by the sounds that realize neighboring morphemes (Katamba, 1993). For example, prefixes and suffixes will normally affect the stress. Meanwhile, there is interaction between morphology and syntax. The form of words may be influenced by the syntactic construction in which the word is used (Katamba, 1993, p. 13). 1. 2. 3 Syntax So far in our study of language, we have made studies of phonetics, phonology and morphology. We have analyzed the structure of sounds and words. Therefore, we have been concentrated on the level of small units of language. After our analysis of words, we move to the consideration of larger structural units of language: phrases and sentences. If we concentrate on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying what is technically known as the syntax of a language (Yule, 2000, p. 100). Syntax can be simply defined as the scientific study of sentence structure. According to Geoffrey (2005), syntax is a term used for the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences. The origin of this word is from Greek and it means a setting out together or arrangement (Yule, 2000). In the sentence The boy hits the door, we can discover that the words are related to each other in this order that it only has one meaning. If we change the order of the words The door hits the boy, the sentences meaning has totally changed and it is nonsense. The reason is that the parts of the sentence are structurally related to each other, and this structure is reflected in the word order. In English, the word order is very necessary and important for the meaning of the sentence according to linguistic rules. In some languages, word order plays a less important role. The meaning of the sentence depends more on the form of the words themselves. In such cases, it is possible for sentences with totally different word order to have the same meaning. English used to be one of these languages. The following examples are taken from Old English: Se cyning metech thone biscop-The king meets the bishop Thone biscop meteth se cyning-The king meets the bishop Although the words are arranged differently, they still mean the same. However, nowadays, the word order is very crucial for meaning. As a consequence, there is a great need for us to explore syntax. Some important concepts are included in the study of syntax. 1. 2. 3. 1Complex and compound sentence Three sentence types are basic in the syntax. There are simple sentence, compound sentence and complex sentence. A simple sentence includes one word. However, in some situation, the simple sentence contains two words. A compound sentence contains at least two simple sentences. The sentences are linked with a conjunction. A Complex sentence composes of at least one main clause and one subordinate clause. 1. 2. 3. 2 Syntax Analysis The following example is provided for syntax analysis. The football team won the match last year. S NP VP NP Det N Vt Det N Adv Ext(time) The football team won the match last year. The chart above is called tree diagram. The letters above each indicate: S = sentence, NP = noun phrase, VP = verb phrase, N = noun, V = verb, and so on. The syntacticians use this method to analyze the sentences. 1. 2. 3. 3 Basic Syntactic Structure In English, the structure of sentence depends heavily on word order. The four basic structures are listed as follows: SNP + Vc + NP ( NPN, NP Det + N) SNP + VP ( NPN, VPVc + Adj) SNP + VP ( NPN, VPV) SNP + VP (NPN, VPVt + NP, NPDet + N) 1. 2. 3. 4 Basic Syntactic Generative Process. There are four basic syntactic generative processes: substitution, expansion, extension, transformation. Take the following sentence as an example to clarify these three concepts. Ken is a policeman. Substitution: Ken is a policeman. Tom is a policeman. Expansion: Ken is a policeman. Ken is a bad policeman. Extension: Ken is a policeman. Ken is a policeman at that time. Transformation: Ken is a policeman. Is Ken a policeman? 1. 2. 4 Semantics Semantics, a subfield of linguistics, is the study of literal meaning. It is the recent addition to the English language. (Palmer, 1976, p. 1). According to Matthews (2007), during the early years the study of meaning focused on the lexicon alone. The scope of the study has expended since 1960s to include both semantics and pragmatics (analyzed in 1. 3), which come to the main fields of the study of linguistic meaning(Katamba, 2000 Matthews, 1997). Semantic meaning is fixed and abstract. It can be understood by surface. However, it is de-contextualized. In another word, it is easily subverted by different gestures or intonations. Semnatics interacts with other aspects of linguistics. For example, when synonyms are used, they can be understood, so it fits the rule of syntax. However, synonyms are used to describe something similar. In a sentence, a synonym can be substituted by another synonym. However, the meaning of synonyms speaker or writer determines or predicates have different degrees, which indicates the meaning is actually different (Alan, 2004). Thus, it is the interaction between syntax and semantics. As for the interaction with phonology, the term tonic syllable in phonology has three kinds of functions. The first one is the accentual function, which is to indicate the focus of the information. The second one is the attitudinal function that is to indicate the speakers attitude. And the last one is grammatical function. If speakers use these functions, the same sentence will turn out to have various meanings. To conclude, in this section, linguistics is analyzed from the aspects of sounds, word structure, grammatical rules and meaning. Each of them is in charge of a certain system. Thus linguistics can help people to communicate, to express, and to be understood. 1. 3 Other disciplines Apart from the core subparts of linguistics, which we have demonstrated before, for further reading, we introduce some other exciting aspects in the field of linguistics. There are a lot more to discover than those areas. 1. 3. 1 Sociolinguistics People may know something about you through the way you speak, for example, where you come from, where you spend most of your life time, your social identity and so on. Two people growing up in the same geographical area, at the same time, may speak differently owing to a number of social factors (Yule, 2000). Consequently, it’s very important to consider the social aspects of language. It’s because speech is a form of social identity and is used, consciously or unconsciously (Yule, 2000). The study of the social aspect of language is known as sociolinguistic. â€Å"Sociolinguistic is concerned with investigation of the relationship between language and society† (Ronald, 2006, p. 13). It consists of cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used. The first linguists who studied the social aspect of language are Indian and Japanese in the 1930s. Another person called Gauchat who came from Switzerland had a analysis of this in 1900s as well. However, these three people didn’t receive much attention in the West. Until the late 19th century, the study of social aspects of language laid its foundation. Sociolinguistics gradually appeared in the 1960s in the West. Linguistics such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK first brought out this concept and explored it. (Wikipedia, 2007, para. 1) 1. 3. 2 Neurolinguistics Though the neural structures of most animal species are very distant from man, there are still resemblances between human and animal languages (Marler, 1981; Nottebohm, 1970), since neurons work in both. Human brain contains billions of neural cells, and so far, the exact number of those so-called neurons is still to be defined (Fabbro, 1999, p. 21). These teeny tiny neurons have close link with the production of language. There can be innate or learnt vocal utterances. Oral language can be the innate property of the human brain, written language, however, is an invention of humankind. Dogs can bark, cats can miaow, and man can cry even after the removal of the midbrain, whereas parrots cannot imitate human sounds, and we cannot produce human language (Fabbro, 1999, p. 21). Therefore, the neural center of our brain is playing an irreplaceable role in the production of language. How does the main cerebral structure serve the production of human  vocalizations? The study of neurolinguistic rely on the study of neurology and neurophysiology, and in these fields, all parts of the nervous system, each having different functions in generating language, are discovered. Theories are found based on lots of experiments concerning the removals of different sections of the brain. The destruction of different language areas destroys language distinguishingly. 1. 3. 3 Historical linguistics Historical linguistics definitely is not concerned with the history of linguistics, though historical linguistics has played an important role in the development of linguistics. It is the main kind of linguistics practiced in the 19th century (Campbell, 1998, p. 5). Historical linguistics concerns the investigation and description of how languages change or maintain their structure in the course of time. Language change can be easily proved by documents written in the same language but at different periods of history. The differences of wording and structure of sentences can reflect the historical development of language. From series of datable documents, Lord’s Prayer widely recorded the history of mankind, and different versions help us analyze the language of each period (Bynon, 1978, p. 7). Meanwhile we can also discover that certain structure rules are still used in current language. There are some constructs and rule that link the grammars of two different but related languages, which descend from a single original language, sharing a common ancestor. More accurately, historical linguistics deals with the kinds of changes, and the techniques and methods we have use to discover history, rather than the origin of words themselves (Campbell, 1998, p. 5). 1. 3. 4 Anthropological linguistics Anthropological linguistic is the study of relations between language and culture. It is related to human biology, cognition and language. It belongs to the field of linguistic anthropology, which is a branch of anthropology that studies human-beings through the language they use(Wikipedia, 2007, para. 1). Some Linguists who explore theanthropological linguistics consider these topics such as chimpanzee communication, pidgins and creoles, structural linguistics,total languages, whorf hypothesis, etc. 1. 3. 5 Pragmatics According to Kate (2000), pragmatics is one of the two main fields in the study of linguistic meaning. Pragmatics deals with natural language, while language is always used in context for an intended purpose. The listeners must try to grasp the meaning implied, enrich the ideas, and finally make out the opinion that what the speakers meant when talking about a particular expression (Kate, 2000). According to Yule (1996), ‘pragmatics studies the context in which the utterance is produced as well as the intention of language user. ’ That means pragmatic meaning depends on context or situation. Without context, meanings can be vague and may be misunderstood by people. Two of the branches are: speech acts that cover ‘requesting’, ‘commanding’, ‘questioning’ and ‘informing’, and politeness that shows the awareness of another person’s face. In short, sociolinguistics is the analysis of interrelationship of language and society. Neurolinguistics is the study of the brain and how it functions in language. Historical linguistics is the consideration of language change and how different languages are related to each other. Anthropological linguistics is the study of language and culture. There are some other disciplines in linguistics. Pragmatics deals with the speakers meaning. The five mentioned above are some main disciplines in linguistics. Different disciplines of linguistics enrich the content of linguistic. The study of linguistics tends to be more and more detailed and completed. 1. 4 Language Acquisition This chapter began with a general introduction to language study. It ends with a consideration of the acquisition of language, containing first, second and foreign language, which is affected by the relationship between teacher and learner. Some experienced educators advise that it is only through learning to speak a language that you can fully analyze it (Everett 2001). Acquisition is described as occurring in spontaneous language contexts (Krashen, 1982), is subconscious, and leads to conversational fluency. 1. 4. 1 First language acquisition For a child, learning first language is automatic, not after starting school, not in specific circumstance and not by great efforts (Yule, 2006). It requires only basic physical capability of sending and receiving sounds directly or indirectly, and interaction with others using this language. Children are brought up in particular environments, being affected by different surroundings, especially by those people whom they spend most of their time interacting with. Infants start express themselves through some simple utterance, such as some vowel-like sounds. Children gain increasing abilities at different development stages, from producing single-unit utterance to producing speech by communicating through expressions (Yule, 2006), since they are able to understand what others said. This a big step forward, like quitting toddling and being capable of walking steadily, forwards, or backwards. As children are being increasingly exposed to communication and interaction, their language skills are developing rapidly because of the expansion of vocabulary. They are never forced to speak first language and seldom be corrected by others, but they correct themselves through interactions every day. Then children learn to use verbs in different sentences, and how to use different words to form a sentence (Yule, 2006). They gradually learn to ask questions correctly and how to use the word no in their speeches to express negative meanings. The last stage of first language acquisition is the ability of making meaningful sentence (Yule, 2006). There is massive variation in the rate at which features of ones first language are acquired. 1. 4. 2 Second language acquisition  Being able to speak first language is one of the basic skills of second language acquisition. Except for the minority of people who are bilingual speakers, most of the learners have no access to a second language until our late childhood. Actually most of the Chinese learners are now learning English as a foreign language, because it is immediately back to Chinese speaking time out of the classroom. But later on they may have the chance of learning it as a foreign language in a native speaking environment, during immersion semesters, when they will acquire this second language in circumstances similar to those of Chinese acquisition. There are obviously differences in foreign language achievement, sometimes related to differences in aptitude (Carroll, 1982), sometimes to affective factors (Gardner Lambert, 1972), sometimes to learner strategies (Naiman, Frohlicn, Stern Tedesco, 1978), sometimes to environmental factors such as opportunities for language use or instructional conditions (Long, 1982), and sometimes simply to time (Carroll, 1975). Human beings have the ability to learn more than one language all through ones live. Farwell (1963) (cited in Taylor, 1976) reports that a British explorer in the 19th century claimed to have spoken more than 40 languages and dialects. Usually, however, after the age of 10, the acquisition of second language is very different from the way one acquired his first language, which is relatively slower and cannot achieve native-like proficiency. 1. 4. 3 Educational factors Most of us begin learning second language in teenage years, spending only few hours on it every day and for most of the daily activities we use our mother tongue. Accordingly, we will encounter lots of difficulties in learning second language without enough exposure to it. Therefore, the largely distinguished part of acquiring first and second language should be language teachers. In order to learn a second language, we must learn from a teacher, or at least follow their guidance. The classroom is a very powerful instrument of instruction and it can control language learning in a very direct way (Richard, T. Roger,H. ). As language teachers, we should focus on students requirements and follow learner-centered approaches. We should impart knowledge in a more practical way so the students can receive easily. Keep the class disciplined and orderly so that students can learn most effectively from the lessons. There are often the situations that the students seldom volunteer answers, and the teacher sometimes has to call on someone and wait for a long time before a response is forthcoming. Why not try breaking away from typical Hong Kong classroom practices in class? Like, students do not have to stand up to greet teachers, and they do not have to raise their hands or stand up when they answer questions. In a relaxed classroom atmosphere, students will feel free to interact. They will not fall silent when the teacher enters the room, then stand up and chant a choral greeting. If the pupils are put in this position in the classroom, they can be more effectively kept in their place in social life. During the class, we teachers should never say like this: I am your teacher. By the authority vested in me I have the right to ask you to behave in a certain way, whether you like it or not. And you, in your role have the obligation to obey (Widdowson, H. G. ). Whereas, we should say that in another way: Do this because I am the teacher and I know whats best for you, but not Do this because I am telling you and I am the teacher. This difference has the advantage of largely increasing participation in the use and practice of language. 1. 4. 4 Summary Approaches to the acquisition of language account for different backgrounds of learns first language, and different conditions of exposure. In acquiring language, learners often go through transitional stages of development, which is at distinguished rates. References Cruse, A. (2004). Meaning in language : an introduction to semantics and pragmatics. Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press. Bynon, T. (1983). Historical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Campbell, L. (1998). Historical Linguistics-An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Dechert, H. W. (1990). Current trends in European second language. Great Britain: WBC Print, Bristol. Fabbro, F. (1999). The Neurolinguistics of Bilingualism. Psychology Press Ltd. Fromkin, V. , Rodman, R. , Hyams, N. (2006). An introduction to language (8th ed. ). Boston, MA: Heinle Heinle. Palmer, F. R. (1976). Semantics: a new outline. Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press. Geoffrey, F. (2005). Key Concepts In Language And Linguistics. USA: Palgrave Macmillan. Kate, K. (2000). Semantics. Basingstoke, England, Macmillan. Katamba, F. (2006). Morphology. Basingstoke : Macmillan Press. Marie E. John P. (1991). Language and Learning. Melbourne: Oxford University Press O Mally, J. M. , Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press. Matthews, P. H. (1997). Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford. University Press, USA. Peter, R. (2000). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press. Ronald, W. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. USA: Blackwell Publishing. Widdowson, H. G. (1990). Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Wikepedia: Sociolinguistics (n. d. ). Retrieved 30 October 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sociolinguistics Wikepedia: Anthropological linguistics (n. d. ). Retrieved 30 October 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics Yule, G. (2006). The study of language (3rd ed. ). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Androgyny in the Characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth Essay -- GCSE

Androgyny in the Characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   In her book, Woman and Gender in Renaissance Tragedy, Dympna Callaghan addresses the presentation of women in Elizabethan England, stating that "women were clearly socially subordinate, and the preponderance of discourse on the gender hierarchy was misogynistic" (Callaghan 12). According to Marianne L. Novy in Love's Argument: Gender Relations in Shakespeare: "'Woman' seems to be associated with qualities - emotions, fears, - one has against one's will, and 'man' with a preferable mode of existence. Men are exhorted to be men, and women, playfully or seriously, often attempt to imitate men" (Novy 198). While men and women were born different, it was society's treatment of their distinguishing sexual traits that defined them either as masculine, and thus in a position of power, or as feminine and unable to challenge male authority. Much of the literature composed in Elizabethan England reflects, whether deliberately or inadvertently, the gender inequities cited by Callaghan, Novy, and others. In William Shakespeare's Macbeth, the dynamics of the marriage between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth involve a mutual striving towards manhood as a result of misplaced gender traits in each. Shakespeare develops the androgyny of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, and this becomes the basis for the offenses they commit in the play. Both characters achieve a position of power and authority through the use of their masculine characteristics, but their feminine characteristics make their gains tenuous and ultimataly cause their downfall. Throughout the play Shakespeare presents the feminine traits within Macbeth as the characteristics that mark him as a flawed man. When Macbeth says... ...speare. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1984 5. Ussher, Jane. Women's Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness?. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991 6. Williams, Juanita. Psychology of Women. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1987    WORKS REFERENCED 1. Belsey, Catherine. The Subject of Tragedy. London: Methuen, 1985 2. Biggins, Dennis. "Sexuality, Witchcraft, and Violence in Macbeth." Shakespeare Studies VII (1975) 3. Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982 4. Hogrefe, Pearl. Tudor Women: Commoners and Queens. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1975 5. Howells, John, ed. World History of Psychiatry. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1975 6. Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. New York: Ballantine Books, 1987   

Conservative vs Liberal

The 1964 Presidential election was an election that changed American history. For the first time since the 1932 Presidential election between Hoover and Roosevelt, the American population was able to choose a president from two candidates with opposing views and ideological mindsets. The United States was going through a time of change with protests, assassinations, and war, which caused social and political discomfort. After the assassination of President Kennedy on November 22, 1963, the country went into shock. Supporters of the charismatic Kennedy were deeply saddened feeling left without a leader with the same outlook and liberal mindset. Lyndon B. Johnson then took over the reign as President for the remaining year, hoping to carry out Kennedy’s ideologies and legislations. The following year during the 1964 Presidential race, he became the Democratic candidate, hoping to become re-elected as President. On the Republican side, Barry Goldwater was a renowned conservative, and after beating Governor Nelson Rockefeller, became the hope for all conservatives across the nation. In 1960, Presidential candidate Barry Goldwater established his conservative principles through The Conscience of a Conservative. Written at a time of great change in America with experiments in big government, the New Deal, and the climax of the Cold War, the views of Goldwater in the Conscience of a Conservative were looked at as revolutionary, yet controversial in the Republican eye. He believed and argued that freedom was the highest value in American society while also stating that compromising for something one does not believe in is unjust. In his book, Goldwater stated that he felt as though putting the power in the hands of a big government was not ideal. He believed that local small governments fit the best interest of the people. Goldwater said that we the people â€Å"can be conquered by bombs or by subversion; but we can also be conquered by neglect — by ignoring the Constitution and disregarding the principles of limited government† (Goldwater 14). He made it known that the power of the federal government in the hands of only a few could be seriously dangerous. He wrote in his book that American people â€Å"console themselves for being in tutelage by the reflection that they have chosen their own guardians. Every man allows himself to be put in lead-strings, because he sees that it is not a person nor a class of persons, but the people at large that hold the end of his chain† (Goldwater 25). Barry Goldwater made it clear through his book that freedom was vital in American society along with small state governments to support each individual person more directly. Lee Edwards states in the article HBO Hijacks Barry Goldwater’s Ideology that Goldwater â€Å"opposed the Bigs of America — Big Government, Big Business, Big Labor, and Big Media† (Edwards). While conservative Barry Goldwater stressed â€Å"in-state† ideologies and small governments, young adults and college students expressed their dire need for a leader. â€Å"The Port Huron Statement† was written at a Student for a Democratic Society (SDS) meeting in Port Huron, Michigan. Tom Hayden, a student at the University of Michigan, was the main leader and voice in the passionate proposal. He was a man who came from a working-class family in which honesty and justice were two main components in the way he lived his life. â€Å"The Port Huron Statement† was a manifestation of what the youth of America was feeling at the time. Most were dissatisfied with the way college administrators were trying to control their lives while others were frustrated that typical liberals were not supporting their freedom and civil rights movement efforts. They, unlike Goldwater, felt as though the federal government needed to play a much larger role in American society to dig them out of the nation’s widespread injustice. They expressed their frustration with a country that was once looked at as a nation of wealth, prosperity, and unlimited potential to now a nation with problems of degradation and war. In their statement they claimed, ‘â€Å"human degradation, symbolized by the Southern struggle against racial bigotry, compelled most of us from silence to activism. ’ ‘†¦Cold War, symbolized by the presence of the Bomb, brought awareness that we ourselves, and our friends, and millions of abstract â€Å"others† we knew more directly because of our common peril, might die at any time†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Levy 43). The SDS felt as though they could not let these two issues go unnoticed and made it clear in their statement when they said, â€Å"We might deliberately ignore, or avoid, or fail to feel all other human problems, but not these two, for these were too immediate and crushing in their impact, too challenging in the demand that we as individuals take the responsibility for encounter and resolution† (Levy 44). They showed other frustrations in such things like social classes and technology when they professed, â€Å"Although our own technology is destroying old and creating new forms of social organization, men still tolerate meaningless work and idleness. While two-thirds of mankind suffers under nourishment, our own upper classes revel amidst superfluous abundance† (Hayden). The SDS felt as though America as a whole was in a concrete hold with no direction on where to go. Throughout their statement they cried for leadership and reform and solid federal government to fix their needs. The SDS showed fear that such issues of overpopulation, degradation and racism, the need for advanced technology, economic and human spending in war, and fortification of totalitarian states would turn the land of opportunity into the regression of an era. The great change however in what the Student of a Democratic Society brought about was the thought of social issues. For once, citizens of America began thinking for themselves as opposed to relying on who was in charge. They had similarities with Goldwater in that they were extremists. They were the â€Å"New Left† and unlike American citizens before them, other than in the Civil Rights Movement, they felt as though head officials, including their college administrators, were out of line. Goldwater, although having completely different ideologies, was also considered an extremist in the Republican Party. He was looked at as being â€Å"The Far Right†. The SDS felt as though whoever was in charge of America needed to make a stand and fight for what they believed in, but unlike Goldwater, they did want a strong central government that could lead them out of their sorrows. Lyndon B. Johnson, the President at the time, felt it was his duty to fulfill the needs of America’s future. Like his fellow predecessor, President Kennedy had wanted to do during his Presidency, Johnson wanted to pass legislation to fill the needs of America. In May of 1964, President Johnson addressed the issues brought before him through a speech at the University of Michigan. President Johnson addressed the main issues of America and gave the students a direction in which the nation was now headed. He stated, â€Å"The challenge of the next half century is whether we have the wisdom to use that wealth to enrich and elevate our national life, and to advance the quality of our American civilization† (Levy 106). Johnson had a vision to build a society without poverty, racial discrimination and injustice, as well as a land of opportunity that was sought out by each individual to reach their own personal goals in life. It was portrayed in Peter Levy’s book, America in the Sixties-Right, Left, and Center, that the goals of Johnson were to not settle for a society that was just rich or powerful, but to develop a society that was â€Å"Great†. He wanted to have a society with unlimited growth and potential in which every citizen has the right to equality and a satisfying life. He shows this in his speech when he says, â€Å"build a society where progress is the servant of our needs, or a society where old values and new visions are buried under unbridled growth. For in your time we have the opportunity to move not only toward the rich society and the powerful society, but upward to the Great Society† (Levy 106). He felt as though the past should be no more, and that the future should hold a society in which all questions of race, prosperity, equality, and potential would not be left unanswered. The development of a Great Society was unlike anything Barry Goldwater supported. The foundation of this new society would put the power into the hands of the federal government, and although democratic, did its job in satisfying the needs of the people but under the supervision of a select few. The Great Society set off a chain reaction of revolutionary and fulfilling acts and reforms in the mid-1960s. While the main goals were to eliminate all racial inequalities and poverty in the country, other issues in health care, education, and living conditions suburbs and urban areas. President Johnson first started with fixing issues America by cutting taxes. In doing so, the Gross Nation Product rose ten percent and a full economic growth by almost five percent within only a few years. During this time of economic reform and growth, the Civil Rights Movement was taking full strides and segregation was growing as well (1960s). In 1964, shortly after Johnsons Presidential campaign took ride, he began passing legislation that Kennedy could not. Not until the death of President Kennedy and sorrow that came with it, was Johnson able to manipulate and convince members of the House to pass such revolutionary and controversial pieces of legislation that would shape America forever. Kennedy, being a youthful and confident president with liberal ideas had trouble getting the House to pass legislation that he was initiating. Another issue was that President Kennedy was the first Catholic president elected which brought some distilled proars among the House. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the first main pieces of legislation to be passed. This act disallowed segregation and racial discrimination in all public institutions and the workforce. Equality reforms in voting took place the following year. The Voters Rights Act of 1965 allowed all minorities to have an equal say in voting and registration. Meeting financial and health needs began progressing with the passing of the Social Security Act of 1965. This act introduced Medicare to the public and provided the elderly with more funding from the government. Lastly, education began receiving needed benefits when the Higher Education Act of 1965 amplified federal money given to universities. This helped enable low-interest loans and scholarships, which gave hope for higher education to all students of America. At the same time, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided significant federal aid to public schools. The legislation passed because of the cry by the youth of America and vision of Lyndon B. Johnson paved the way for the future of the nation. Without the determination of President Johnson, the entire nation might not have received the remuneration it needed. There were many reasons why Goldwater lost the presidential election in 1964, some of which were out of his control. The death of Kennedy provided sympathy to the democratic side and with the economy being stable at the time, the incumbent candidate, Johnson, received great press from the media. This then allowed his face to be that of America at the time and what the future could hold. Goldwater had issues to begin with while trying to revolutionize his extreme right mindset, which alienated the moderate wing of the party. This then split up the party, which made it almost impossible for Goldwater to receive the support he needed from the Republican Party. Goldwater was unlike most conservatives in American society at the time. His ideas in his book The Conscience of a Conservative brought forth alternative ideas to the liberal mindset that was being brought forth through such a time of change and democratic reform. In his book, Goldwater made it clear that the difference between Conservatives and Liberals was that Liberals tended to be more materialistic while Conservatives looked at the entirety of a man. He also felt as though all Liberals needed was economic and social satisfaction while Conservatives believed that along with economic stability, one’s spiritual stability was only secured by oneself, not from outside sources (Goldwater 4). Although Goldwater was unsuccessful in creating a more conservative America, he did create a foundation as to what America could have been if he had been elected president. For one, Goldwater believed that if a state felt it were fit, that separate but equal was suitable. He also felt strongly in the role of local and state governments as opposed to big governments. So, looking at this, and although it does seem like a plausible ideology that could possibly work to get the freedoms of each individual, each state would almost be as if it were its own country. There were could be roughly fifty small nations inside of one giant nation that all followed different rules. This would lead to a completely divided country where there could be complete anarchy in each state, if wanted. With one central government, Americans are allowed to share what they feel are the most important issues, like the SDS did, and have the leaders in which were elected by the people, do their best to fix them. Goldwater also believed that consumer prices and huge tax bills kept hindered the work of farmers. He felt as though big taxes and consumer prices in business kept less productive farmers in the business, thus taking some finances from more productive farmers. His thoughts were that there should be no regulations at all and that all farmers should be in a free open market fighting against them. In addition to taxes, Goldwater felt strongly about a man’s right to property. Goldwater felt that what a man earned was what one puts on their property. And, a tax on property, was therefore a tax on their wages, and in Goldwater’s eyes, a tax on wages was a tax on freedom. The tax on man’s property was parallel to his thought that one should have privacy to their should be dictated by the â€Å"†¦individuals and families, by churches, private hospitals, religious service organizations, community charities and other institutions that have been established for this purpose† (Goldwater 68). His views related to the freedom of the spirit and material of a man and that in a capitalistic society, taking away the responsibility of a man’s materials means taking away the entire freedom of a man. Goldwater felt strongly about the power of state and local governments over big governments. He felt as though each state should hold its laws against tax, segregation, and education as opposed to one government holding it for the entire nation. He felt as though this was the only way in which each individual man could be responsible for his own property and individual rights. If one was unsatisfied with the right held in a state, they then could move to a body of people that held their same views. Goldwater’s ideologies and philosophies were ideas of what would later be viewed as revolutionary in the common conservative. Barry Golderwater’s book, The Conscience of a Conservative, his extremist ideologies, along with feelings set forth by the SDS, and the legislations put through under President Johnson were all huge impacts on America. Goldwater, although lost in a landslide, built the foundation for the modern era Republican. Without his thoughts and ideals about local and state governments over big governments, small businesses getting the same share as big businesses, and freedom is most important value in American society, the thoughts of Republicans could be left completely one-sided and concrete. The â€Å"Port Huron Statement† brought about the idea for American citizens to have a voice, and for the youth of America to stand up and think for them. No longer will people rely on others to make all decisions for them. Tom Hayden was revolutionary in free speech and standing up for what he believed in. He felt as though there were issues in America and unjust laws that needed to be re-established. Without his and the SDS, students of America might be completely different rules. Lastly, Lyndon B.  Johnson and the reform of the Great Society was the stepping-stone to true freedom in America. First, without Hayden and SDS, Johnson might not have responded with such an enlightening reform. Passing acts that allowed all races to have the same equalities, educational funding which enabled all students the right to a better education, and elderly money to live and be healthy all paved the way for America in the future. Without all three, America might have been a completely different nation.Work Cited http://www.history.com/topics/1960s http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=17198

Himalayans Cat

Student Number _____________ RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT Himalayans Cat Felis Catus Abstract When you think of a warm, loving, and sensationally beautiful cat with crystal blue eyes to die for the first cat that should come to mind is the prestigious Himalayan Cat. The Himalayan Cat is a lovable cat breed and is a favorite choice amongst cat lovers. This domestic breed of felines are a popular pick in Hollywood and are famous for playing cat characters in movies such as â€Å"Meet the Parents,† â€Å"Meet the Flockers,† â€Å"Date Movie,† â€Å"Homeward Bound,† and on the â€Å"Martha Stewart show† (Petinsurance, 2012, Para. ). The Himalayan cat is unlike any other for it has a unique history. The Himalayan cat is derived from the Genus/Species Felis catus and is a result of the breeding of two very prestigious breeds of cats: the Persian and the Siamese cat. As a result of this unique breeding the Himalayan cat was created and has since been a symbol of el egance due to there â€Å"very unique body characteristic that distinguishes them from any other member of the feline family† (Helgreen, 2011, Para. 5).The Himalayan Cat is a domestic cat or Felis catus, which is â€Å"a small, usually furry, domesticated, carnivorous mammal† (Wikipedia, 2012, Para 1). It is more commonly referred to as the â€Å"house cat†. Its taxonomic classification group is â€Å"animalia chordata mammalia carnivora felidae felis catus† (Ramel, 2012, Para 1). According to Ramel (2012) archaeological evidence suggests that modern cats lineage, recognizably similar to our present day species, began to emerge about 25 MYA and during the last 12 million years the eight separate lineages of modern cats have emerged.The domestic cats are apart of that lineage known as the Felis genius, which makes them in direct relation to the cougar, lion, and tigers with the exception of the obvious differences of size and domestication (Wikipedia, 2012 ). The Felis catus are strong, active, round headed, small-bodied, social natured, intelligent animals. â€Å"Felis, typically weigh between eight and eleven pounds, but some breeds can exceed to twenty-five pounds† (Wikipedia, 2012, Para. 7).Domestic cats still have many of their wild instincts for instance; they are constantly climbing, jumping, running, and/or extending their claws in hunting or self-defense (Ramel, 2012). Their sharp retractable claws and strong sharp teeth are their defense mechanism against predators. Domestic cats have great sense of smell, excellent night vision, and a variety of â€Å"vocalization methods of communication (purring, hissing, meowing, and growling), and exceptional hearing† (Wikipedia, 2012, Para 10). According to Wikipedia (2012) they can hear higher-pitched sounds than either dogs or humans, detecting frequencies from 55Hz up to 79 kHz.The life expectancy for a domestic cat is between 12-16 years but some may live longer. Dome stic cats â€Å"reach sexual maturity anywhere between the ages of 7 to 9 months† and usually have an average of 3-5 kitten per liter† (Ramel, 2012, Para. 3) Domestic cats have a â€Å"mutualistic relationship† with human beings and are great companions for people of all ages (Wikipedia, 2012). One of the most devoted people loving breeds of domestic cats is the Himalayan Cat breed. Himalayan Cats are extremely affectionate (Anderson, 2012).Schapmann (2012) states according to Animal Planet’s rating of Himalayan cat characteristics, Himalayans rank high in affection toward their owners, need for attention, and compatibility with children and other pets. This breed of domestic cats are very calm natured but playful. â€Å"The males are more outgoing than their female counter partners, who are more shy and reserved† (Anderson, 2012, Para. 3). Himalayans Cats are a result of a crossbreeding of the Persian cat with the Siamese cat. â€Å"The Himalayan cat was the creation of scientist, Dr. Clyde Keeler and cat breeder, Virginia Cobb.The two teamed up to blend a Persian cat and a Siamese cat† (Petinsurance, 2012, Para. 2) McDonald (1999) states that although, for decades, breeders attempted to breed these two cats but were unsuccessful. It wasn’t until Marguerita Goforth successfully created this breed in 1950s and by the 1960s, it was accepted as a breed by cat authorities (McDonald, 1999). The Himalayan Cat has a remarkable appearance, which makes them so popular. They are short with long thick white hair, which is a featured they adopted from the Persian Cat and have strong colourpoint markings, which is a featured they adopted from the Siamese Cat Petinsurance, 2012). The colourpoint markings are on their ears, legs, tail, and facemask and vary in color (Helgreen, 2011). â€Å"There is a definite contrast between point and body color† (Helgreen, 2011, Para. 4). Most Himalayan Cats range from either white to beige and their colourpoint markings can be â€Å"chocolate, seal, lilac, blue, red, cream tortile, blue-cream, chocolate-torte, lilac cream, seal lynx, blue lynx, red lynx, cream lynx, torte lynx, blue-cream lynx, chocolate lynx, lilac lynx, chocolate-torte lynx, and lilac-cream lynx†(Helgreen, 2011, Para. ) Aside from their distinctive color patterns, the Himalayans are also recognized for their piercing blue eyes and strong flat faces (American Cat Fanciers Association, 2012). There are two facial types: the Extreme/Peke (Ultra face) and the Traditional known as the â€Å"Doll face†(Helgreen, 2011, Para. 4). The major difference between these two is that Extreme faced Himalayan has an extremely flatten face. â€Å"The nose is as nearly as high as the eyes† (McDonald, 1999, pg. 5). This flattened face feature causes this breed to experience problems with their eyes tearing, teeth crowding, and difficulties breathing (Petinsurance, 2012, Para 5).According to C hancellor (2012) Himalayans are subjected to the same types of diseases as Persian Cats due to their linage. These health issues include: â€Å"Tear Duct Overflow, Skin fold dermatitis, Polycystic Kidney Disease, Progressive Retinal Atrophy, and Urinary tract stones† (Chancellor, 2012, Para, 1). Despite the possible health issues, Himalayan Cats have a lifespan of 14-15 years and have no problems with breeding (McDonald, 1999). The female Himalayan Cats may be ready for breeding as early as five months and will begin calling for the her male counter partner to assist in the reproduction process (McDonald, 1999).According to Helgreen (2011) Himalayan cats normally birth 3-4 kittens however; they can produce liters of eight kittens. Himalayan Cats have a very lovable, docile, and playful personality (Schapman, 2012). â€Å"The amazing pet behaviors observed in this cat are commendable the high level of affection intelligence and tolerance are not qualities that are seen in ord inary domestic cats†(Petinsurance, 2012, Para. 6). According to Schapman (2012) this breed of domestic cats has a strong need for attention and companionship from its human owner.This may range anywhere from daily grooming to reassurance and security from its owner. â€Å"They are very dependent on their owners but also have an air of independence, calmness, and self-assuredness† (Schapman, 2012, Para 4). The Himalayan Cat breed is a very unique breed aside from all its unique physical and behavioral characteristics. The American Cat Fanciers Association recognizes this uniqueness and is the only association that recognizes this breed as a separate breed from all other varieties of Persian and Siamese cats (American Cat Fanciers Association, 2012).Despite their ancestral linage to the Persian and Siamese Cat, the Himalayan Cat breed is in a league of its own. References American Cat Fanciers Association. (2012) Himalayians. Retrieved from http://www. acfacat. com/breed_ standard. htm Anderson, C. (2012). Personality differences for male and female himalayan cats. Retrieved from http://www. ehow. com/info_8087211_personality-male-female-himalayan-cats. html Chancellor, T. L. (2012). Himalayan cat diseases. Retrieved from http://www. ehow. com/about_5436085_himalayan-cat-diseases. html#ixzz2C8PXRtDf. Helgreen, J. A. 2011). Himalayan cats. Telmark Productions. McDonald, C. (1999). Guide to owning a himalayan cat. Facts On File, Incorporated. Petinsurance. (2012). Himalayan cats; blue-eyed wonder. Retrieved from http://www. petinsurance. com/healthzone/pet-articles/pet-breeds/himalayan-cats. aspx Ramel, G. (2012). Cats. Retrieved from http://www. earthlife. net/mammals/cats. html Schapman, S. (2012). Himalayan cat personality. Retrieved from http://suite101. com/article/the-himalayan-cat-personality-a70239 Wikipedia. (2012). Domestic cats. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cat. Himalayans Cat Student Number _____________ RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT Himalayans Cat Felis Catus Abstract When you think of a warm, loving, and sensationally beautiful cat with crystal blue eyes to die for the first cat that should come to mind is the prestigious Himalayan Cat. The Himalayan Cat is a lovable cat breed and is a favorite choice amongst cat lovers. This domestic breed of felines are a popular pick in Hollywood and are famous for playing cat characters in movies such as â€Å"Meet the Parents,† â€Å"Meet the Flockers,† â€Å"Date Movie,† â€Å"Homeward Bound,† and on the â€Å"Martha Stewart show† (Petinsurance, 2012, Para. ). The Himalayan cat is unlike any other for it has a unique history. The Himalayan cat is derived from the Genus/Species Felis catus and is a result of the breeding of two very prestigious breeds of cats: the Persian and the Siamese cat. As a result of this unique breeding the Himalayan cat was created and has since been a symbol of el egance due to there â€Å"very unique body characteristic that distinguishes them from any other member of the feline family† (Helgreen, 2011, Para. 5).The Himalayan Cat is a domestic cat or Felis catus, which is â€Å"a small, usually furry, domesticated, carnivorous mammal† (Wikipedia, 2012, Para 1). It is more commonly referred to as the â€Å"house cat†. Its taxonomic classification group is â€Å"animalia chordata mammalia carnivora felidae felis catus† (Ramel, 2012, Para 1). According to Ramel (2012) archaeological evidence suggests that modern cats lineage, recognizably similar to our present day species, began to emerge about 25 MYA and during the last 12 million years the eight separate lineages of modern cats have emerged.The domestic cats are apart of that lineage known as the Felis genius, which makes them in direct relation to the cougar, lion, and tigers with the exception of the obvious differences of size and domestication (Wikipedia, 2012 ). The Felis catus are strong, active, round headed, small-bodied, social natured, intelligent animals. â€Å"Felis, typically weigh between eight and eleven pounds, but some breeds can exceed to twenty-five pounds† (Wikipedia, 2012, Para. 7).Domestic cats still have many of their wild instincts for instance; they are constantly climbing, jumping, running, and/or extending their claws in hunting or self-defense (Ramel, 2012). Their sharp retractable claws and strong sharp teeth are their defense mechanism against predators. Domestic cats have great sense of smell, excellent night vision, and a variety of â€Å"vocalization methods of communication (purring, hissing, meowing, and growling), and exceptional hearing† (Wikipedia, 2012, Para 10). According to Wikipedia (2012) they can hear higher-pitched sounds than either dogs or humans, detecting frequencies from 55Hz up to 79 kHz.The life expectancy for a domestic cat is between 12-16 years but some may live longer. Dome stic cats â€Å"reach sexual maturity anywhere between the ages of 7 to 9 months† and usually have an average of 3-5 kitten per liter† (Ramel, 2012, Para. 3) Domestic cats have a â€Å"mutualistic relationship† with human beings and are great companions for people of all ages (Wikipedia, 2012). One of the most devoted people loving breeds of domestic cats is the Himalayan Cat breed. Himalayan Cats are extremely affectionate (Anderson, 2012).Schapmann (2012) states according to Animal Planet’s rating of Himalayan cat characteristics, Himalayans rank high in affection toward their owners, need for attention, and compatibility with children and other pets. This breed of domestic cats are very calm natured but playful. â€Å"The males are more outgoing than their female counter partners, who are more shy and reserved† (Anderson, 2012, Para. 3). Himalayans Cats are a result of a crossbreeding of the Persian cat with the Siamese cat. â€Å"The Himalayan cat was the creation of scientist, Dr. Clyde Keeler and cat breeder, Virginia Cobb.The two teamed up to blend a Persian cat and a Siamese cat† (Petinsurance, 2012, Para. 2) McDonald (1999) states that although, for decades, breeders attempted to breed these two cats but were unsuccessful. It wasn’t until Marguerita Goforth successfully created this breed in 1950s and by the 1960s, it was accepted as a breed by cat authorities (McDonald, 1999). The Himalayan Cat has a remarkable appearance, which makes them so popular. They are short with long thick white hair, which is a featured they adopted from the Persian Cat and have strong colourpoint markings, which is a featured they adopted from the Siamese Cat Petinsurance, 2012). The colourpoint markings are on their ears, legs, tail, and facemask and vary in color (Helgreen, 2011). â€Å"There is a definite contrast between point and body color† (Helgreen, 2011, Para. 4). Most Himalayan Cats range from either white to beige and their colourpoint markings can be â€Å"chocolate, seal, lilac, blue, red, cream tortile, blue-cream, chocolate-torte, lilac cream, seal lynx, blue lynx, red lynx, cream lynx, torte lynx, blue-cream lynx, chocolate lynx, lilac lynx, chocolate-torte lynx, and lilac-cream lynx†(Helgreen, 2011, Para. ) Aside from their distinctive color patterns, the Himalayans are also recognized for their piercing blue eyes and strong flat faces (American Cat Fanciers Association, 2012). There are two facial types: the Extreme/Peke (Ultra face) and the Traditional known as the â€Å"Doll face†(Helgreen, 2011, Para. 4). The major difference between these two is that Extreme faced Himalayan has an extremely flatten face. â€Å"The nose is as nearly as high as the eyes† (McDonald, 1999, pg. 5). This flattened face feature causes this breed to experience problems with their eyes tearing, teeth crowding, and difficulties breathing (Petinsurance, 2012, Para 5).According to C hancellor (2012) Himalayans are subjected to the same types of diseases as Persian Cats due to their linage. These health issues include: â€Å"Tear Duct Overflow, Skin fold dermatitis, Polycystic Kidney Disease, Progressive Retinal Atrophy, and Urinary tract stones† (Chancellor, 2012, Para, 1). Despite the possible health issues, Himalayan Cats have a lifespan of 14-15 years and have no problems with breeding (McDonald, 1999). The female Himalayan Cats may be ready for breeding as early as five months and will begin calling for the her male counter partner to assist in the reproduction process (McDonald, 1999).According to Helgreen (2011) Himalayan cats normally birth 3-4 kittens however; they can produce liters of eight kittens. Himalayan Cats have a very lovable, docile, and playful personality (Schapman, 2012). â€Å"The amazing pet behaviors observed in this cat are commendable the high level of affection intelligence and tolerance are not qualities that are seen in ord inary domestic cats†(Petinsurance, 2012, Para. 6). According to Schapman (2012) this breed of domestic cats has a strong need for attention and companionship from its human owner.This may range anywhere from daily grooming to reassurance and security from its owner. â€Å"They are very dependent on their owners but also have an air of independence, calmness, and self-assuredness† (Schapman, 2012, Para 4). The Himalayan Cat breed is a very unique breed aside from all its unique physical and behavioral characteristics. The American Cat Fanciers Association recognizes this uniqueness and is the only association that recognizes this breed as a separate breed from all other varieties of Persian and Siamese cats (American Cat Fanciers Association, 2012).Despite their ancestral linage to the Persian and Siamese Cat, the Himalayan Cat breed is in a league of its own. References American Cat Fanciers Association. (2012) Himalayians. Retrieved from http://www. acfacat. com/breed_ standard. htm Anderson, C. (2012). Personality differences for male and female himalayan cats. Retrieved from http://www. ehow. com/info_8087211_personality-male-female-himalayan-cats. html Chancellor, T. L. (2012). Himalayan cat diseases. Retrieved from http://www. ehow. com/about_5436085_himalayan-cat-diseases. html#ixzz2C8PXRtDf. Helgreen, J. A. 2011). Himalayan cats. Telmark Productions. McDonald, C. (1999). Guide to owning a himalayan cat. Facts On File, Incorporated. Petinsurance. (2012). Himalayan cats; blue-eyed wonder. Retrieved from http://www. petinsurance. com/healthzone/pet-articles/pet-breeds/himalayan-cats. aspx Ramel, G. (2012). Cats. Retrieved from http://www. earthlife. net/mammals/cats. html Schapman, S. (2012). Himalayan cat personality. Retrieved from http://suite101. com/article/the-himalayan-cat-personality-a70239 Wikipedia. (2012). Domestic cats. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cat.